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Pheromone
Technology : History And Applications
In
Cotton Fields In Egypt
Abdallah
M. Albeltagy
Plant
Protection Research Institute
Abstract
Only 20 years altered the discovery and identification of the first
insect pheromone, Bombykol, the silk worm Bombyx mori sex – pheromone by Adolf Friedrich Johann
Butenandt in 1959 ( The Noble Prize in Chemistry 1939, discovery of human
female sex – hormones, estrone and other primary female sex hormones, received in 1949) after the discovery of the insecticidal efficacy of
DDT , the first chemical insecticide in 1939 by Paul Hermann Muller in 1939
(Noble Prize in medicine 1948 ).
Pheromone technology could be used in many different tactics throughout
the integrated pest management ( IPM ) strategy for the monitoring and control
actions of the insect pest complex in the cotton fields.
Since the identification and clarification of gossyplure, the sex
pheromone of pink bollworm ( PBW ) Pectinophora gossypiella (
Sandures ) by Hummel ( 1973 ) , it has been used in proud spectrum uses all
around the world especially in USA and Egypt. In Egypt , since the first use of
gossyplure in 1978 , it has been used
in so many techniques and tactics in the laboratories and in cotton fields for
both monitoring and control actions of
PBW.
This article emphasizes on the pheromone technology history , tactics, and
applications, especially gossyplure in Egypt concerning its advantages and
benefits in the modern cotton industry.
Introduction :-
Insecticides are
used in agriculture, medicine, industry and the household. The use of insecticides is believed to
be one of the major factors behind the increase in agricultural productivity in
the 20th century. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly
alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans; and others are concentrated in the
food chain.
Although the
first chemical insecticide ( DDT ) was discovered it biological activity( insecticidal
activity ) in 1939, the first pheromone was ( Bombykol ) was characterized in
1959, it’s only 20 years that altered the pheromones use after the insecticides
use.
I)
DDT Discovery[1]
:-
Fig.( 1 ) : DDT Chemistry
DDT the first
of the chlorinated organic insecticides, was originally prepared in 1873, but
it was not until 1939 that Paul Muller of Geigy Pharmaceutical in Switzerland
discovered the effectiveness of DDT as an insecticide he was awarded the Nobel
Prize in medicine and physiology in 1948 for this discover.
The use of
DDT increased enormously on a worldwide basis after World War II, primarily
because of its effectiveness against the mosquito that spreads malaria and lice
that carry typhus. The World Health Organization estimates that during the
period of its use approximately 25 million lives were saved. DDT seemed to be
the ideal insecticide, it is cheap and of relatively low toxicity to mammals
(oral LD50 is 300 to 500 mg/kg). However, problems related to extensive use of
DDT began to appear in the late 1940s. Many species of insects developed
resistance to DDT, and DDT was also discovered to have a high toxicity toward
fish.
The
chemical stability of DDT and its fat solubility compounded the problem. DDT is
not metabolized very rapidly by animals; instead, it is deposited and stored in
the fatty tissues. The biological half-life of DDT is about eight years; that
is, it takes about eight years for an animal to metabolize half of the amount
it assimilates. If ingestion continues at a steady rate, DDT builds up within
the animal over time.
1)
Insecticide Problems[2]
:-
The heavy
use of insecticides almost causes one or more of these problems :-
1-
It acts as environmental
pollutants.
2-
It has many risks to human health.
3-
It has many side effects on beneficial insects especially natural
enemies.
4-
It causes the outbreak of
secondary pests.
5-
It causes the problems of what so-called “ insecticide resistance “.
6-
It has a side effects on the
treated crops and causes what so-called “ Phytotoxicity “.
7-
It affects the soil fertility.
2)
Costs of Insecticide problems :-
Although ,
the above mentioned pesticide problems, we have to pay a huge amount of money
to overcome some of its side effects . The return on pesticide-intensive
agricultural practices has proved unrealized, considering billions of dollars
in secondary or externalized costs — from $2.2 billion in annual pesticide
poisonings, water treatment and pollination, according to two Iowa State University economists, to $10 billion,
according to the research of Cornell University professor David Pimentel.
II)-Bombykol Discovery and the beginning of the pheromone
Era ( 1959 )[3] .
Bombykol is
a pheromone released by the female silkworm moth to attract mates. Discovered by Adolf Butenandt in 1959, it was the first pheromone to be
characterized chemically. Minute quantities of this pheromone can be used per
acre of land to confuse male insects about the location of their female
partners, it can thus serve as a lure in traps to effectively remove insects
without spraying crops with large amounts of chemicals. Butenandt named the
substance after the moth's Latin name Bombyx mori.
Fig.( 2) Bombykol chemistry
1) Pheromones[4]
:-
A
pheromone (from Greek phero "to bear" + hormone from Greek -
"impetus") is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a
social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals
capable of acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the
behavior of the receiving individual. There are alarm pheromones, food trail
pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology.
Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. In addition,
some vertebrates and plants communicate by using pheromones.
The
term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher
in 1959, based on the Greek word pherein (to transport) and hormone (to
stimulate). They are also sometimes classified as ecto-hormones. German
Biochemist Adolf Butenandt characterized the first such chemical, Bombykol (a
chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female silkworm to
attract mates).
Pheromone Time line ( 1870 - 1990 ) .
|
|
1870
|
In the 1870s, New York entomologist Joseph A. Lintner suggests
the chemical scents emitted by insects could be used to control insect pests.
|
1870
|
In the 1870s, French naturalist Jean-Henri Fabre notices a
female peacock moth is able to attract 150 male peacock moths from miles
away.
|
1957
|
German biologist Dietrich Schneider develops the electroantennogram
(EAG), a method for using the antenna of a moth to detect pheromones
electrically.
|
1959
|
German chemist Adolf Butenandt isolates and characterizes the
first insect pheromone, that of the domestic silkworm moth.
|
1959
|
German biochemist Peter Karlson and Swiss entomologist Martin
Lüscher coin the term “pheromone” to describe a compound an animal gives off
that triggers a specific behavioral or developmental reaction in a member of
the same species.
|
1960
|
U.S. Department of Agriculture chemist Morton Beroza reports his
idea of using sex pheromones to disrupt insect mating.
|
1960
|
In the 1960s, pheromone researchers begin to use gas
chromatography, mass spectometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance to identify
insect pheromones.
|
1961
|
Colin G. Butler identifies the pheromone of the honey bee, the
first pheromone that regulates the development of an insect.
|
1966
|
Chemist Robert Silverstein and entomologist David Wood
demonstrate that all three components of the bark beetle’s pheromone blend
are required to attract the beetles—a phenomenon known as synergism.
|
1967
|
Entomologist Harry Shorey shows that pheromones can be used to
disrupt the mating of cabbage looper moths in the field.
|
1970
|
In the 1970s, British biologist John Kennedy develops the wind
tunnel assay.
|
1970
|
In the 1970s, farmers begin to use pheromones for monitoring
insect pests in order to reduce insecticide use.
|
1971
|
Wendell Roelofs uses EAG as an analytical tool to identify the
codling moth pheromone.
|
1978
|
First pheromone is registered in the United States for
commercial use in mating disruption—against the pink bollworm on cotton.
|
1980
|
Pheromones are used in more than a million traps to capture more
than four billion beetles, curbing an epidemic of bark beetles in the forests
of Norway and Sweden.
|
1990
|
In the 1990s, pheromones used for mating disruption effectively
help curb insect damage in stone-pitted fruit orchards, and tomato, rice,
cotton, and grape fields.
|
Table ( 1 )[5]
: pheromone time-line .
2)Pheromones
applications[6]
:-
The concept
of IPM is based on the recognition that
no single approach to pest control offers a universal solution, and that the
best crop protection can be provided by a fusion of various tactics and
practices based on sound ecological principles. Pheromones are a commonly used
component of many insect IPM programs.
The existence of pheromones has
been known for centuries, apparently originating in observations of mass bee
stinging in response to a chemical released by the sting of a single bee. The
first isolation and identification of an insect pheromone (silkworm moth)
occurred in 1959 by German scientists. Since then, hundreds, perhaps thousands
of insect pheromones have been identified by increasingly sophisticated
equipment. Today we have a much clearer view of the limitations and
possibilities associated with insect pheromones in IPM programs. The two
primary uses of insect pheromones are for detection and monitoring of
populations and for mating disruption. These uses take advantage of sex pheromones
on which a vast majority of insect pests rely to mediate reproduction.
2-1- Uses of Pheromones in IPM :-
a-
Detection and Monitoring.
The principle use of insect sex pheromones is to attract insects to traps for
detection and determination of temporal distribution. In most instances, it is
the males who are responders to female-produced sex pheromones. Trap baits,
therefore, are designed to closely reproduce the ratio of chemical components
and emission rate of calling females. Ideally, a trap bait should uniformly
dissipate its pheromone content over time and not permanently retain or degrade
the pheromone in the process. Trap baits of many designs have been tested over
the years, but the hollow polyvinyl plastic fiber (emit from open ends), closed
hollow fiber and bag (emit through walls) and laminated plastic flake (emit
through walls and exposed edges) are commonly used today. Trap design is also
critical to effective use of traps for monitoring insect populations. Traps
vary in design and size dependent on the behavior of the target insects.
Consistent trapping protocols are essential for population evaluations, spray
thresholds, and year to year comparisons. The information from trap catches can
be very useful for decision making on insecticide applications or other control
measures. For example, trap catches may indicate a loss of effect of pheromone
on mating disruption and the need to reapply a pheromone treatment. Careful
monitoring and experience in interpreting collected data are important for success.
Traps may also be placed with the objective of destroying males for population
control.
Male annihilation is trapping
carried to a seemingly logical conclusion. Place enough traps, catch enough
males, and leave the females of the species without mates. This approach has
been used against pink bollworms in an isolated area of Arizona with low
numbers of overwintering moths. A rate of 5 traps per acre was used and the
traps were composed of Styrofoam cups containing oil to provide larger capacity
for dead moths. These traps were placed on row centers to avoid the cultivator
and never serviced again. The grower community paid for this program for a few
years, but results were difficult to prove because a control area was not
available. Calculations by Dr. Edward Knipling (USDA retired) indicated that
almost all (95%+) male pink bollworms would have to be destroyed before they
could mate in order to exert significant population control. Any untrapped
males simply mate more frequently. Mating disruption does not depend on traps
for control, although traps are frequently used to monitor the extent of mating
disruption in the population. Failure to trap males is taken as an indication
that males are unable to find females which may or may not be true. Thus, trap data
must always be related to actual levels of crop infestation.
b-
Mating Disruption.
With the commercial availability of insect sex pheromones for several
agricultural pests in the 1970's, scientists and entrepreneurs turned their
attention to mating disruption as a "biorational" approach to insect
control. In theory, mating disruption may be accomplished in two principle
ways: false trail following or confusion. False trail following results from
placing many more point sources of pheromone (hollow fibers, flakes or other
point sources) per acre than the anticipated numbers of females in the crop.
The odds of males finding females at the end of the pheromone trail must be
greatly reduced. Emission of pheromone is relatively low from each source such
that a downwind trail is created and not lost in a background of released
pheromone. Males following these trails are thought to spend their mating
energies in pursuit of artificial pheromone sources. Pink bollworm males were
early observed trying to mate with hollow fiber pheromone sources in treated
fields. Thereafter, commercial pink bollworm pheromone products were applied in
stickem containing small amounts of a contact insecticide. The resulting
attract-and-kill formulations (another form of male annihilation) were viewed
as a subversion of the pheromone by purists, but in practice the damage was
limited to the target species. However, the effectiveness of the added
insecticide is largely unknown under field conditions. Growers endorsed the
idea that a dead male is better than a confused one. A further combination of
pheromones and insecticides is occasionally encountered. Dual applications of
pheromone and full strength insecticides (either separately or in tank mixes)
are applied with the idea of increasing insect flight activity and thus
increasing the chance of insecticide exposure. Full strength applications of
pheromone are generally used for this method. The greater the amount of
pheromone applied and the greater the release rate, the more likely males are
to be confused in the fog of ambient pheromone.
Male confusion is thought to be
the result of ambient pheromone concentrations sufficient to hide the trails of
calling females (large doses from diffuse sources such as microcapsules or
larger doses of pheromone in point source dispensers such as tie-on
polyethylene ropes). Added to the effect, or indeed the effect, is the
adaptation of antennal receptor sites and/or habituation of the insect's
central nervous system. Specific receptor sites on the antennae respond to only
the pheromone molecules (individual component molecules appear to have
individual receptor sites on antennae). When a receptor site is continually
activated by high ambient concentrations of pheromones, the resulting
electrical signal diminishes (measured by an electroantennogram). The receptor
site becomes unresponsive and the insect becomes navigationally blind. When the
insect's central nervous system is inundated with signals from the receptor
sites it becomes habituated: no longer able to provide the directed behavior.
All of the above are, to some degree, based on known neurophysiology, but
exactly what proportion of each occurs in a given situation can only be
guessed. The net result of confusion is that the male is unable to orient to
any pheromone source and follow the upwind trail to a mate. For a current
summary of theory and application of pheromones for control of Lepidopterous
pests. Present commercial formulations of pheromones for both trap baits and
mating disruption mimic the natural chemical blends of females as clearly as
possible. Most insect sex pheromones are multicomponent with precise ratios of
components which may be expensive to manufacture. Thus, insect sex pheromones
and products containing pheromones, are commercially available primarily for
insects of economic importance. Fortunately, there is hardly an insect species
of agricultural importance, among the Lepidoptera at least, for which there are
not some pheromone products available.
Fig .( 3 ) : Hexalure Chemistry .
IUPAC:
|
1:1 mixture of (7Z,11E)-
and (7Z,11Z)-hexadeca-7,11-dien-1-yl acetate
|
or
|
|
1:1 mixture of (Z,E)- and (Z,Z)-hexadeca-7,11-dien-1-yl
acetate
|
|
CAS:
|
(7Z)-7,11-hexadecadienyl
acetate
|
Reg. No.:
|
50933-33-0
|
Formula:
|
C18H32O2
|
Fig.( 4 ) : gossyplure chemistry
3) History of gossyplure
applications :-
1-
In USA :-
Conventional
insecticides have not provided a long-term solution to the pink bollworm
problem (Henneberry 1986). Considerable amounts of basic biological and
ecological information have been accumulated and applied in developing PBW
control programs. No single control method is completely satisfactory. The
possibility of combining a number of methods into a single control system
appears to be the most promising approach (Henneberry et al. 1980).
Fig. ( 5 ) : Pink
bollworm. Pectinophora gossypiella and twist-on spiral mating disruptant
pheromone dispenser.
Efforts to control the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), by mating disruption began with the sex attractant "hexalure" in the early 1970's. The discovery of the pink bollworm sex pheromone in 1973 led to the first successful commercial formulation in 1978 (see review by Baker et al. 1991). The pheromone, a two component mixture of Z, Z- and Z, E-7,11- hexadecadienyl acetate (called gossyplure in commercial products), has appeared in a variety of aerially applied formulations including hollow fibers, flakes, microcapsules, and in hand-applied twist-tie ropes and twist-on spirals. Original applications utilized 0.75 to 1.5 g AI/acre in several thousand point sources and were applied several times during early to mid-season while recent hand-applied formulations utilized ca. 30 g AI/acre and were applied once. These are known as false-trail following and confusion methods, respectively. All formulations are to be applied at first flower bud ("pin-square" or about 8 true leaf stage cotton) which is the earliest fruiting form in which the pink bollworm can reproduce. Applications at first flower bud are made against the lowest seasonal (over-wintered) populations, an aid to efficacy.
Efforts to control the pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), by mating disruption began with the sex attractant "hexalure" in the early 1970's. The discovery of the pink bollworm sex pheromone in 1973 led to the first successful commercial formulation in 1978 (see review by Baker et al. 1991). The pheromone, a two component mixture of Z, Z- and Z, E-7,11- hexadecadienyl acetate (called gossyplure in commercial products), has appeared in a variety of aerially applied formulations including hollow fibers, flakes, microcapsules, and in hand-applied twist-tie ropes and twist-on spirals. Original applications utilized 0.75 to 1.5 g AI/acre in several thousand point sources and were applied several times during early to mid-season while recent hand-applied formulations utilized ca. 30 g AI/acre and were applied once. These are known as false-trail following and confusion methods, respectively. All formulations are to be applied at first flower bud ("pin-square" or about 8 true leaf stage cotton) which is the earliest fruiting form in which the pink bollworm can reproduce. Applications at first flower bud are made against the lowest seasonal (over-wintered) populations, an aid to efficacy.
Commercial
use of pheromone in IPM programs for control of the pink bollworm is widely
used in Arizona. The current and perhaps most successful demonstration of the
value of this approach is the Parker, AZ, program on ca. 25,000 acres of cotton
along the Colorado river in the northwest corner of the state. Deemed to be a
somewhat isolated area of the northern extreme of pink bollworm overwintering,
the area growers have supported a systematic approach fashioned after the
successful boll weevil eradication program. The area-wide program has used
selected commercial formulations (including dual applications with insecticide)
to reduce pink bollworm populations each year during the past 5 seasons. The results
have been so satisfactory that very little control for pink bollworm is
presently needed in the program areas.
Systematic
IPM programs using pheromone to control pink bollworm are also in use in India
and Pakistan, but attain the greatest acreage in Egypt. Pheromone treatments
totaling a hundred thousand acres or more were used in Egypt during the 1995
season. Published reports indicate the program of several years is expanding
and has produced control of pink bollworm comparable to conventional insecticides.
The use of pheromone in Egypt is under state control and is applied to selected
large areas of cotton. An overall view of cotton pest management is provided by
Luttrell et al. (1994).
1-1- Mating
Disruption with PBW Sex Pheromone (gossyplure) [7]:-
Behavioral
insect control by mating disruption with sex pheromone was suggested by
Knipling and McGuire (1966). Hummel et al., (1973) identified a
mixture of the Z,Z- and Z,E-isomers of 7,11-hexadecadienyl acetate as the pink
bollworm sex pheromone and proposed the name “gossyplure.” Shorey et al.,
(1976) initiated studies to evaluate the mating disruption method, in which the
atmosphere of the cotton field was permeated with gossyplure, for PBW control.
Albany
International Co., Needham, Massachusetts, developed NoMate-PBW®, a slow
release formulation of gossyplure and hexane contained in 1.5 cm lengths of
about 200 I.D. hollow fibers, sealed near one end (Brooks and Kitterman 1977).
The results of extensive testing in Arizona and southern California indicated
substantial reduction in boll infestations and in the need for chemical
insecticides for PBW in the NoMate-PBW treated fields (Doane and Brooks 1980).
Areawide
applications with PBW pheromone in the Imperial Valley of California resulted
in curtailing insecticide use and significant yield increases (Staten et al.
1983). Additional evaluations of the effectiveness of control of PBW using
pheromones in commercial cotton conditions were made in 1981 and in 1982. The
gossyplure combination used in these studies included the addition of 0.004 kg
of permethrin or fenvalerate (AI) per hectare to the polybutene sticker,
Bio-Tac, used to adhere fibers to leaves (NoMate-PBW Attact’n Kill). The
addition of this small amount of insecticide was shown to enhance the
effectiveness of the pheromone by killing male moths that encountered the fiber
(Staten and Conlee, U.S. Patent No. 4671010). The small amount of insecticide,
in sources that were attractive only to the pink bollworm and widely scattered
(one per 2 m²) through the top of the cotton canopy, did not appear to be a
threat to insect predators.
Hercon
Group of Herculite Products, Inc., New York, developed Disrupt®, a slow release
system for gossyplure, consisting of three-layer plastic dispensers (0.05 cm²)
with gossyplure concentrated in the center reservoir and the outer layers
regulating the release of the pheromone. The results of field tests of this
product in Arizona indicated substantial reduction in boll infestations
(Henneberry et al., 1981).
Shin-Etsu
Chemical Co., Ltd, Tokyo, Japan, developed the PB-Rope®, a high-rate, slow
release system consisting of a wire-based, sealed polyethylene tube (8")
filled with gossyplure. Extensive field trials conducted in the Imperial Valley
of California and the Mexicali Valley of Mexico indicated a substantial
reduction in boll infestations and insecticide applications in the PB-Rope
treated fields, compared with that in conventional insecticide-treated fields
(Staten et al. 1987). Community-wide application of the PB-Rope in the
Coachella Valley of California, at the pinhead square growth stage, provided a
highly effective level of control of PBW for approximately sixty days, and
insecticide usage was drastically reduced or even eliminated in some fields
(Staten et al. 1988).
Area-wide,
timely application of commercial formulations of gossyplure in the Parker Valley
of Arizona, demonstrated the feasibility of suppressing PBW infestations to a
near zero level in four years, and conceptualized the prospect of eradication
(El-Lissy et al. 1993, Staten et al. 1995, and Antilla et al. 1996 and
Grefenstette et al. 2009).
1-2-
Combining gossyplure and insecticides :-
Gossyplure.
the pink bollworm sex pheromone, has been used commercially since 1977 to
suppress pest populations by disrupting mating in cotton crops. Two
slow-release systems for gossyplure are commercially available: No- Mate PBW
fibers and Disrupt flakes,
suspended
in the sticker Bio-Tac or Phero-Tac, respectively, and applied aerially with
special equipment. The addition of small amounts of pyrethroid insecticide to
the sticker has been
suggested
to kill male pink bollworm moths attracted to and contacting the pheromone-sticker
combination (point source). To determine the effectiveness of such treatments,
we conducted tests in cooperation with growers and pest control advisors in
southeastern California's Palo Verde Valley. Catches of male pink bollworm
moths (Pectinophora gossypiella [Saunders]) in gossyplure baited traps,
rosetted blooms and boll infestations, and numbers of beneficial
predators
were compared in fields treated with: (1) Disrupt with and without the
pyrethroid insecticide permethrin in Phero-Tac; (2) NoMate PBW with and without
permethrin in Bio-Tac; and (3) insecticides only (trichlorfon). Some decisions to
treat or not to treat were made jointly by the chemical representatives, grower,
and pest control advisors. Others were made routinely by grower's pest control
advisor. This is a report of the 1982 studies ( Beasley and Henneberry 1984 ) .
2- In Egypt :-
In 1999, in the Governorate of
Fayum, Egypt, an organically managed area of 66 ha (33 ha of cotton)
was subjected to pheromone mating disruption (MD) in order to control Pectinophora
gossypiella (PBW). Tripherone-PecGos dispensers (Trifolio-M Comp., Lahnau,
Germany), evaporating 0.7 mg pheromone per day, were applied, at a density
of 300 dispensers per hectare, in mid-June when the first bolls were forming.
In a neighbouring area of conventional agriculture, no PBW-MD was used.
Instead, two insecticides were sprayed in the cotton fields: Profenophos in
early July, and Esfenvalerate in early August. Two cotton fields (0.5–1 ha
each) were studied in each area. Boll infestation by PBW was low in the area
with mating disruption, and significantly higher in the conventionally managed
cotton, prior to insecticide use (June) and in August 1999. Bemisia tabaci,
Aphis gossypii and Empoasca lybica infested conventional
cotton in significantly higher numbers than organic cotton. Spiders proved to
be more common in organically grown cotton (with PBW-MD) than in conventionally
managed cotton (with mineral fertilizers and insecticides). The reasons of
these differences are discussed. In 1998, the cotton yield had shown no
differences between organically and conventionally managed farms (both used
insufficient PBW-MD). However, in 1999, the yield from the organically grown
cotton (with MD) was significantly (52%) more than that from conventionally
managed cotton (with insecticides). In this study, PBW-MD proved to be superior
to insecticides in several aspects ( Boguslawski and Basedow 2001 )..
2-1-
Different Pheromone tactics applied in Egypt :-
Pheromones strategy differs
completely in its tactics than the insecticide strategy (because of their
different aims and targets). In Egypt, pheromone strategy was used widely with
many different tactics as an important part of the IPM program conducted then. Some
of these tactics are:-
a-
Pheromone traps for
monitoring and detection technique :-
1- The use of pheromone traps, of different types and shapes, for
monitoring insect pest field population density and dynamics over place (village,
district, Governorate, region, countrywide), ( Campion et.al., 1978, Campion
et.al., 1980, Doane and Brooks 1980, Nasr, El-Sayed et.al., 1984, El- Deeb et.
Al., 1987, Albeltagy et. al. 1991a, Hosny et.al., 1991, Khider et. al., 1991
and Albeltagy 2012 a).
2- The use of pheromone traps, of different types and shapes, for
monitoring insect pest field population density and dynamics over time (day,
week, month, season, year), (
Albeltagy et. al. 1993a ).
3- The use of pheromone traps, especially delta traps, as a control
indicator to differentiate between different kinds of control actions as a mean
of IPM (Albeltagy et. Al.1996a).
4- The use of pheromone traps, especially delta traps, as a control
trigger for insect pest control decision for different kinds of control actions
as a mean of IPM, (Albeltagy1999).
5- The use of pheromone traps, especially delta traps , to evaluate the pheromone release rates and
its corresponding effect on crop infestations ( Albeltagy et. al. 1993 c ) .
6- The use of pheromone traps, especially delta traps, to indicate
the relationship between trap catches and crop infestation (Albeltagy et. Al.
1995 a).
7- The use of pheromone traps, especially delta traps, to build up
computer simulation models for different insect pest control strategies and
tactics (Albeltagy et. Al. 1995b ) .
b- Pheromone traps for mass trapping technique :-
1- The use of many different pheromone trap types ( delta, funnel
and / or water ) as a mass trapping technique against many different insect
pest field strains (Campion and Nesbitt 1981, Crithley and El-Deeb 1981, Albeltagy
et. al. 1991b and Hamid and Albeltagy
1995, khidr 1997 and Albeltagy 2012a) .
c-
Pheromone disruption
technique:-
1- Pink bollworm (PBW)
rope gossyplure ( the sex pheromone of
PBW ) formulation was used against pink
bollworm on large scale applications ( thousands of acres ) in cotton fields for many years ( Albeltagy
1993 and Albeltagy et.al. 1993 b ) .
2- The use of pheromone disruption technique as a part of IPM
program against cotton insect complex pests ( Albeltagy et. al. 1993d ) .
3- The use of pheromone disruption technique as a part of IPM
program to enhance the role of biological control agents in cotton fields (
Mostafa et. al. 1994 ) .
4- The use of different pheromone confusion techniques, disruption
– lure and kill, in different formulation types (dispensers, rubbers,
microencapsulated), (Brooks et. al., 1979, Kydonieus 1981, Hall et.al. 1982,
Campion 1983, Critchley et. al. 1983, Critchley et. al. 1985, El-Adel and
Gaston 1985, Khider et al., 1986,
Gadallah et. al. 1990, Abdo et. al. 1991 , Moawad et. al., 1991 , Albeltagy and Haroun 1996, and Albeltagy 2012a
) .
d- Attracticide resistance monitoring technique( ARMT ) :-
1- The use of pheromone traps
in the attracticide resistance monitoring technique as a simple, easy ,
effective, accurate, and quick tool for monitoring and detecting insecticide
resistance in insect pest field populations ( Albeltagy et. al. 1996 b ,
Albeltagy et. al. 2000 , Khider et. al. 2002, Albeltagy et. al. 2010, and
Albeltagy 2012b) .
Table ( 2 )[8]
: Pheromone treated area in Egypt
|
||||
#
|
year
|
Cotton area
|
Pheromone area
|
%
|
( Feddan )
|
( Feddan )
|
|||
1
|
1982
|
1,065,841.00
|
500.00
|
0.05
|
2
|
1983
|
998,277.00
|
1,250.00
|
0.13
|
3
|
1984
|
983,560.00
|
13,000.00
|
1.32
|
4
|
1985
|
1,081,009.00
|
37,000.00
|
3.42
|
5
|
1986
|
1,054,860.00
|
61,000.00
|
5.78
|
6
|
1987
|
969,793.00
|
6,000.00
|
0.62
|
7
|
1988
|
1,013,960.00
|
30,000.00
|
2.96
|
8
|
1989
|
1,005,533.00
|
40,000.00
|
3.98
|
9
|
1990
|
993,047.00
|
0.00
|
0.00
|
10
|
1991
|
851,283.00
|
7,500.00
|
0.88
|
11
|
1992
|
840,296.00
|
40,000.00
|
4.76
|
12
|
1993
|
884,310.00
|
100,000.00
|
11.31
|
13
|
1994
|
721,443.00
|
360,000.00
|
49.90
|
14
|
1995
|
710,207.00
|
500,000.00
|
70.40
|
15
|
1996
|
920,911.00
|
550,000.00
|
59.72
|
16
|
1997
|
859,255.00
|
590,000.00
|
68.66
|
Table ( 3 )[9]
: Gossyplure formulations used In disruption technique In Egypt
|
|||||
Campany
|
Product
|
Formulation
|
Concentration
|
Application rte
|
a.i.
( gm)
|
a.i.(gm)/L. or Kgm
|
/ feddan
|
/ Feddan
|
|||
ICI
|
Pectone
|
Microencapsulated
|
20
|
200 ml
|
4
|
Sandoz
|
Nomate
|
Hollow Fiber
|
76
|
15 gm
|
1.14
|
Bassif
|
Hircon
|
micro flakes
|
28
|
60 gm
|
1.68
|
Feromone
|
Stirrup
|
Concentrated liqued
|
6.32 gm
|
240 ml
|
1.52
|
Somotomo
|
Pb-Rope
|
Long tube
|
1 = 144 mgm
|
150 tube
|
21.6
|
Ecogen
|
Nomate
|
Gelatin Ring
|
1 = 155 mgm
|
200 ring
|
31
|
Agrisence
|
Sellibete
|
Rubber ring
|
1 = 254 mgm
|
104 ring
|
26.4
|
Feromone
|
Lastfight
|
Poly- metric Paste
|
1 = 73 mgm
|
300 drop
|
22
|
III)Advantages of pheromone applications :-
1- Decreases number of insecticide applications.
2- Rationalizes insecticides usages.
3- Keeps the susceptibility of insect pest field
populations.
4- Keeps the efficiency of insecticides.
5- Increases pollinators.
6- Increases crop productions.
7- Decreases environmental pollutions.
8- Enhances biological control agents.
9- Increases honey- bee populations and honey
productions.
10- Increases farmer benefits.
IV)Recommendations
:-
We must expand in using
pheromone technology tactics for insect pest management ( ipm ) in different
agricultural crops ( especially cotton ) and horticultures, and also against
medical and livestock insect pests as mentioned previously to obtain these
results :-
1-
To overcome the above mentioned pesticide problems.
2-
To gain the advantages of pheromone technology use.
3-
For farmers to gain good profits of their cultivations, instead of their
annual losses .
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